Author: Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University
EDU 623: Introduction to Teaching & Learning
Instructor: Dennis Lawrence
8/19/13
How do children learn?
Based on the early research and philosophy of Jean Piaget, children learn through “play-based” activities. (2009) Years later, a number of authors and researchers investigated the impact of early childhood education relevant to the psychology of early childhood development. Likewise, the development of higher education was also a product of formal skills training. Despite the evolution of higher education, the basic premise of college and graduate studies continues to revolve around vocational learning and training. This paper will review the history of higher learning to demonstrate the fact that secondary and post-secondary education is still very much a part of the apprenticeship system of learning. I chose to study secondary education becuase I work in that industry and I enjoy teaching adults. The other reason that I have chosen to study secondary education is in part due to the current economic situation in California. Today, more than ever, adults are returning to school for added training or career transitions. In some ways, history is repeating itself. For example, the labor market is once again demanding a college degree alon with specialized experience as well as completion of graduate school for higher paying jobs. This is nothing new, simply a repeat of the industrial revolution all over again. The only exception is that new we have the Internet and a growing number of new technological advances to take into consideration. Historically, secondary education was something that men completed on thier own accord in order to support a family. Today, the student population is very diverse and tuition may be supported by the community,
government or the student's family, but the role of higher education is unchanged.
Early Higher Education
Thanks to Hillary Clinton’s famous use of the African proverb in 1996, "It takes a village to raise a child," the debate over the role of government and communities in supporting families and children has become a focal point. While early childhood education centered on the fundamentals of math, reading and writing, secondary education was primarily for men to learn practical skills in order to support a family. Higher education in America is a product of an extended evolutionary process. Religious economic, educational and societal issues have influenced higher education throughout the history of the United States.
During Colonial times, the notion of higher education in America can be credited to apprenticeship agreements and/or religious training. The first formalized higher learning schools during Colonial times were focused on producing Puritan ministers and clergy.
While religious training dominated higher learning, vocational skills become a prominent topic among American educators as a result of the shift to an industrial economic base. Thus, the Morrill Land Grant Bill was signed by Congress to set federal dollars aside for the establishment of Universities focusing on training students for jobs in agriculture, science, technology and mechanical arts for each state in the US. (1999)
The Private University
In 1636, Harvard University opened and students studying for the ministry were given free tuition. Next, Yale College as founded in 1701, followed by Princeton University, Stanford University, Brown University, Columbia University and Dartmouth College. While wealthy Philanthropists endowed many of the private institutions, states began funding their own colleges also with a strict emphasis on academics, law and/ or medicine but at lower tuition rates. (1965)
The Higher Education Act
After World War II, Congress passed the GI Bill in 1944 to give men returning from war the opportunity for free education. With industrial production still at an all-time high, The Higher Education Act (HEA) was enacted in 1965 so that federal scholarships and low-interest loans could be awarded to those students unable to afford tuition fees for higher learning. In addition, local community colleges were established while a separate education bill was passed to ensure the development and expansion of state dental and medical schools. (2009)
More importantly, the Higher Education law was intended “to strengthen the educational resources of colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education. Specifically, the Act increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. This was the first establishment of a "Financial Aid" system for students. Despite its reauthorization over the years, HEA is still active, set to expire at the end of 2013.
The Civil Rights Movement
From the early 1890s to 1915, Booker T. Washington was a dominant black political and educational leader in the United States. He established and led the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, an all-black college for black students to gain access to higher learning. (1996)
With the Civil Rights movement, state colleges and universities started to become culturally diverse. Although African-Americans and women had their separate colleges, the Civil Rights movement directed public colleges and universities to accept students regardless of race, gender or nationality.
The Internet Bubble
The begining of the information-technology revolution can be marked by the rise (and fall) of several fast moving Interet companies recieving venture capital for growth from Silicon Valley. During this period, a multitude of small web-based companies hit the stock market at an all time record. From 1997 to 2001, individuals profited in an open market with a combination of rapidly increasing stock prices and market confidence that the companies would turn future profits in favor of technology. Cities all over the United States sought to become the next "Silicon Valley" by building network-enabled office space to attract Internet entrepreneurs regardless of educational background. Not surprisingly, the "growth over profits" mentality inevitably led some companies to engage in lavish internal spending, such as elaborate business facilities and luxury vacations for employees. Executives and employees who were paid with stock options instead of cash became instant millionaires when the company made its initial public offering; many invested their new wealth into yet more dot-coms. (2004) Unfortunately, the dot-com bubble popped almost as fast as it flew into town. By 2001 the bubble was deflating at full speed. A majority of the dot-coms ceased trading after burning through their venture capital, many having never made a profit.
Nevertheless, laid-off technology experts, such as computer programmers, found a glutted job market. University degree programs for computer-related careers saw a noticeable drop in new students. It was rumored that unemployed programmers were going back to school to become accountants or lawyers.
Higher Education Today
Today, a college education is a standard for most students after graduation from high school. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, more than 30% of U.S. adults 25 and older had at least a Bachelor's Degree in March 2011. During this time in California, the median household income averaged $62,000.00 per year. A student having graduated from a four-year college can expect to obtain a well-rounded secondary education and qualify for professional employment without having to worry about manual labor. A Bachelor's quickly becomes the normal standard as students continue to graduate from four-year college and universities.
In 2012, over 50% of U.S. adults reported having a Bachelor's Degree or higher. Thus, a higher salaried job requires a post-secondary degree. Needless to say, the employment market is more competitive than ever. As a result, there is an ever growing need for "specialists". The specialist is one who can emerse him/herself in the field so much so that they become an expert in the field. Even the young entreprenuer will seek out a "specialist" or expert for employment.
Thus, the age of the Internet and innovative technology revolution have still not changed the role of higher education as it continues to be the place for students to continue learning, hone their skills and develop into skilled practitioners.
Conclusion
Now, more than ever, adults are returning to school for added training or career transitions. The labor market is once again demanding a college degree along with specialized experience as well as completion of graduate school for higher paying jobs. Even with the Internet and a growing number of new technological advances to take into consideration, the demand still exists for specialization. Historically, secondary education was something that men completed on thier own accord in order to learn the necessary skills to support his family. Today, the student population is very diverse and tuition may be supported by the government or local community but the role of higher education remains unchanged.
References:
Burd, Stephen. (2003), “Institutions Serving Minority Students Propose Changes to Higher Education Act,” Chronicle of Higher Education 49, no. 26.
Glenn Altschuler and Stuart Blumin (2009) The GI Bill: The New Deal for Veterans
Gordon, Howard R. D. (1999). The History and Growth of Vocational Education in America. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Johnson, Keith V. 1996. "Some Thoughts on African Americans' Struggle to Participate in
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Lane, Kristina. (2003), “Bill Would Expand Higher Ed. Access for Minorities, Low-Income Students,” Community College Week 16, no. 4: 3.
Laurence Veysey (1965) The Emergence of the American University
Armstrong, D., Henson, K., & Savage, T. (2009). Teaching today: An introduction to education
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Lowenstein, Roger. (2004). Origins of the Crash: The Great Bubble and Its Undoing. Penguin Books; ISBN 978-1-59420-003-8.; pp. 114-115
Winner, Melinda (28 January 2009). "The Serious Need for Play". Scientific American.
