Assistive Technology Devices for Students with Writing Difficulty

Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University
EDU620: Meeting Individual Student Needs with Technology (MRC1340B)
Instructor: Kimberly Hall
10/21/13


Overview
Over the past decade, new technologies have revolutionized education for children with disabilities focusing on two primary roles and approached to support special education: Assistive Technology (AT) and Universal Design (UD). Today, special education teachers have an enormous amount of choices in terms of educational tools to help stimulate thought, promote learning, develop skills, and enhance abilities for students with disabilities to ultimately ensure a quality education.

Children with a specific learning disability in written expression often have difficulty when it comes to expressing thoughts and ideas with pencil and paper as would be expected according to their age, intelligence and educational background. In some cases this type of disability may be referred to as dysgraphia. Also, written expression disorders may co-exist with other disabilities such as dyslexia. Typically, a disability in written expression or dysgraphia may be characterized by poor handwriting, spelling difficulties and difficulty putting thoughts into written words. Deficits may also stem from problems with fine motor processing skills and other information processing skills.

The purpose of this research paper is to analyze three assistive technology tools/devices that address writing assistance for young students with dysgraphia, dyslexia or any other writing disability. Although the existing benefits of technology for students with disabilities are already widely recognized, the potential benefits are likely to be even more profound for than present practices would suggest.

Assistive Technology Devices
Assistive technology for beginning writers may help students compensate for some processing deficits. Some types of assistive technology that may help include special paper with raised lines to guide the student as he writes across the page, larger pencils with special grips, and customized arm and hand splints to hold the arm and fingers in proper position when writing. Young students may also benefit from the use of motorized pens and other fun writing devices to motivate them to want to write. Beginning writers might also be introduced to word processors while continuing to work on conventional writing skills. There are thousands of items that can be classified as assistive technology and many ways to think about assistive technology. When choosing an assistive technology device, it is important to consider price, features and functionality relative to the child’s needs. For students having difficulty either with the motor aspects of writing or with composing written material, the following assistive technology devices may be helpful: Write:OutLoud 6, AlphaSmart 3000 Portable Computer Companion or the Co:Writer 4000. Each device has specific advantages, disadvantages and benefits.

Write:OutLoud 6
The Write:OutLoud assistive technology device is a word processor that supports the writing process by reading text out loud as students write. It provides sentence and paragraph feedback which connects written and spoken words so students can complete their thoughts independently and write to the main idea. Also, the immediate auditory and visual cues for misspelled words allow students for immediate self-correction. This program can also import and read scanned text from the Internet and CD-ROM files, and give students access to information they might not be able to read. This product is very affordable with a $99 price tag. This easy-to-use software program can be used for young students during the kindergarten and elementary years.

Advantages
Specially, Write:OutLoud is simple to use and reads words as they are written, providing real-time auditory feedback for students. The product has several special features and writing tools including: talking spell checker, homophone checker, and dictionary help students confirm their word choice in language that can they understand. There are several reason why this is a great product.

First, Write:OutLoud 6 features the latest Acapela voices – the highest quality, most natural sounding speech engine available. Write:OutLoud 6 will also play any other SAPI 5 voice you have on your system. Second, the Spell Checker feature consistently outshines the spell checkers in MS Word and other common word processors when used in K-12 schools. And text-to-speech reads the word choices, helping students choose the right word. The Oxford Student’s Dictionary feature displays and speaks the definition of almost any word. Unlike other common dictionaries intended for use by professionals, the Oxford Student’s Dictionary definitions are clear and concise for 3-12th grade students. The Homophone Checker quickly searches a document for homophones and offers definitions for all the alternatives. This helps students build homophone awareness and choose the intended word. The bibliographer helps students create their own bibliography using dozens of source types including electronic/webpage, articles, books, etc. Formats include both APA and MLA. Many districts across the country are using Write:OutLoud as a standard testing accommodation. In fact, the product allows teachers to quickly restrict access to specitic features, as state regulations require. Finally, Write:OutLoud 6 is so simple, you can train teachers in 30-minutes with the “Train-in-30 Tutorial .” Students you can save files anywhere on your network, WebDisk or on a USB drive for access anywhere. Easy sign-in gets users writing in seconds and Write:OutLoud functions identically on Mac and Windows, and is now optimized for Windows XP, Vista, 7, and Mac OS 10.4+.

Disadvantages
Of course, the Write:OutLoud 6 product is not without disadvantages, users often mention that the product was inconsistent when providing the audio cue to alert the students to spelling errors as they were made. In addition, the spell check feature would not automatically read while JAWS feature was loaded. Compared to other products on the market, the Write:OutLoud is quite competitive simply due to its low cost, especially for educators. However, if cost is not an issue, this product may not be the best choice.

AlphaSmart 3000 Portable Computer Companion
The AlphaSmart 3000 assistive technology device is a portable computer allows students to enter and edit text while they take notes and engage in written language activities at their own desks. This product retails for $199, which is considerably cheaper than a lap top computer and can be connected to a computer or printer as needed. Students with learning disabilities and handwriting problems can use this technology from kindergarten to high school years. Since the product is portable, it can be used at home and in classrooms. More importantly, with the “No Child Left behind Act” requiring students in every state to pass state standards-based tests in elementary and middle school, the AlphaSmart has the ability to empower teachers in schools across the country to prepare their students for high-stakes tests using their AlphaSmart 3000 computers (2006). In fact, research conducted by the US Department of Education shows that the test preparation method used in the AlphaSmart device improves student test scores by 15% or more (2006). As a result, this product has been supported for a UD approach to learning.

Advantages
Delivered on CD-ROM for both Windows and Macintosh, AlphaSmart includes more than 6,000 practice test questions for grades 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8 featuring the same types of questions and skills tested on all 50 state standards-based tests, including SAT-9, SAT-10, Terra Nova, CAT-6, ITBS and more. Teachers using AlphaSmart will simply select their state, grade level, the quantity of practice questions they wish to include, and the specific reading, language arts, or math skills they wish to test. AlphaSmart will then automatically create practice tests based on those selections. Teachers will then download their practice tests to one or more AlphaSmart 3000s. After students complete the practice tests on their AlphaSmart 3000s, the software will then gather and grade the tests, storing the results in a grade book with robust reporting features that allow teachers to track student results and progress by their particular state's standards.

The AlphaSmart 3000 is affordable, simple, easy to use, lightweight and expandable and highly recommended. The product is designed so that students don't get caught up in the complexities of a computer. Students spend their time learning rather than dealing with the operating system of a computer. In addition, its low cost makes it a cost-effective educational solution for parents, children and teachers. Educators can provide technology access to an entire classroom of thirty students for the price of three to four computers. Additionally, the AlphaSmart has extraordinary battery life, running over 700 hours on only three AA alkaline batteries. It can go wherever learning takes place: the classroom, field trip, library, and even home. Finally, the AlphaSmart 300 is expandable and far less expensive than a PC. Weighing less than 1 kg and virtually indestructible, it's an indispensable tool in and out of the classroom. You can put more AlphaSmart 3000s in the hands of more students, and free up your lab computers for higher-level work. Two Secure Digital and MultiMediaCard-compatible slots let you add memory; add devices, backup data or share data and software with another Dana or Palm Powered device. Students can easily synchronize data with a home, classroom or dorm room PC.

Disadvantages
Some students, especially those used to working on computers, find the AlphaSmart® less functional than they would like. The much smaller screen than that available on laptops can be challenging for some, and there may be a learning curve in getting used to using a word processing machine rather than a computer. For kids with learning disabilities, these devices may prove frustrating, especially when typing skills are not much better than writing skills, and when a student needs to heavily edit work before submitting it.

Co:Writer 4000
The Co:Writer 4000 is a talking word prediction software program which enables students to express their thoughts in writing with less frustration. Choose this product as a classroom tool for any student struggling with writing such as at-risk-students, poor spellers, students with dyslexia or ESL students in elementary school. But educators will agree that this program can be a writing assistant tool for just about any student in support of a Universal Design classroom-wide learning approach.

This writing intervention program gives students the tools they need to construct quality, content-rich sentences. Students can use FlexSpell to write the words they want, even if they can only spell them phonetically. Developing writers get immediate grammar support to improve the quality of their work. The Co:Writer 4000 costs $325. While the retail price of this product may seem high, the Co:Writer 4000 has three primary features which set it apart from other products on the market: FlexSpell, Grammar support and topic dictionaries for curriculum-specific vocabulary. FlexSpell™ translates phonetic spelling for students. Struggling writers who use phonetic spelling have a special support with FlexSpell. As a student types a word, Co:Writer 4000 not only predicts words consistent with the actual letters, but also words consistent with the sounds of the letters. Correct spellings are predicted and reinforced as students see, hear and use them.

In addition, the special Grammar support feature fosters better sentences. The Co:Writer 4000 technology helps students make appropriate word choices and write higher-quality sentences. It helps with correct subject-verb agreement, proper spellings, capitalization, appropriate pronoun and article use, customary word usage, correct word forms and word endings, popular phrases and proper noun usage like names and places. By taking advantage of Co:Writer 4000's options, students can maximize their writing experiences with as few keystrokes as possible. Even better, the Co:Writer 4000’s topic dictionaries assists students with curriculum-specific vocabulary. For each student or each assignment, a dictionary or group of dictionaries is designated as the source for the predicted words. A beginning writer may use a basic vocabulary dictionary so that only words they will likely know are predicted. A more advanced student writing a report would include a Topic Dictionary for a particular assignment. Dozens of Topic Dictionaries are included with Co:Writer 4000 and teachers can create new topic dictionaries in less than 3 minutes from any electronic document.

Advantages
The Co:Writer 4000 provides a level of writing support that is unique in such products. It can provide in-line prediction of the current word. It provides speech feedback, and grammar sensitive prediction. It allows for (and corrects) "creative spelling." Overall, the Co:Writer 4000 includes the following supportive features:
• Voice feedback speaks predicted words and completed sentences
• Allows adjustments to the number of words predicted
• Allows changes to background and text colors
• Capitalizes first word in sentences
• Places spaces after words in sentences
• Saves individual student's preferences for later use
• Teacher's guide Included
• New literacy support materials included
• Tutorials included
• Compatible Operating systems: Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows

Disadvantages
The Co:Writer 4000 is a very intrusive program with a high cost. To get many of the benefits, one must type into Co:Writer, then wait while Co:Writer types into the word processor. There is a constant drag on computer responsiveness that interferes with the writing process. Specifically the concern surrounding the Co:Writer is that it has become the standard intervention in school system practice. Providing the same solution to everyone is not significantly better than providing no solution to anyone, however, the concept of “one-size-fits-all” may not necessarily be effective for special education students. Assistive technology interventions must be matched to the needs of the individual student. Where Co:Writer is a good fit, it should certainly be provided. But I would recommend buyers to view it as an add-on product. In other words, the Co:Writer should not be the only entree on the menu.

Conclusion
Assistive technology (AT) has the potential to enhance the quality of life for students with learning disabilities (LD) by providing them with a means to compensate for their difficulties, and highlight their abilities. Because students with learning problems have individual strengths, limitations, interests, and experiences, a technology tool that is be helpful in one situation or setting may be of little use under different circumstances.As a result, selecting the appropriate technology for a student with LD requires a careful analysis of the product specifications as well as dynamic interaction between the individual, technology, task, and context. This analysis of the Write:OutLoud 6, AlphaSmart 3000 Portable Computer Companion and the Co:Writer 4000 provided a exemplifies the detailed approach needed when choosing the appropriate AT device.

For school-wide use, administrators may want to perform a much more detailed analysis prior to choosing one technology. More importantly, the evaluation to determine classroom or school-wide use may include a formal cost analysis and testing of multiple products in order to determine the most effective technology or device.

According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), it is the school district's responsibility to research, select and acquire the assistive technology including training teachers for students with disabilities at no cost to parents. But selecting an appropriate AT tool for a student requires parents, educators, and other professionals to take a comprehensive view, carefully analyzing the interaction between the student, the technology, the tasks to be performed, and the settings where it will be used. This should not a quick and easy evaluation.

The assessment for choosing AT is an on-going process, and it is critical to periodically re-evaluate the match even after a technology tool has been selected. This will help ensure that the student receives the maximum benefit from assistive technology and is able to reach his/her full potential.

References
Edyburn, D. L. (2013). Inclusive technologies: Tools for helping diverse learners achieve academic success. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

Gromisch, E. S. & Reinhart Neas, L. M. (Ed). (2012). Special education: A guide to technology options. Bright Hub Education. Retrieved from http://www.brighthubeducation.com/special-ed-inclusion-strategies/125659-a-teachers-guide-to-assistive-technologies-in-the-classroom/?cid=parsely_rec

Marino, M. T., Marino, E. C., & Shaw, S. F. (2006). Making informed assistive technology decisions for students with high incidence disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(6), 18-25. Retrieved from http://public.wsu.edu/~matthewmarino/documents/at.pdf

Raskind, M. H., & Higgins, E. L. (1995). "Effects of speech synthesis on the proofreading efficiency of postsecondary students with learning disabilities." Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol. 18.

Has The Role of Higher Education Changed Over Time?

Author: Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University
EDU 623: Introduction to Teaching & Learning
Instructor: Dennis Lawrence
8/19/13


How do children learn?
Based on the early research and philosophy of Jean Piaget, children learn through “play-based” activities. (2009) Years later, a number of authors and researchers investigated the impact of early childhood education relevant to the psychology of early childhood development. Likewise, the development of higher education was also a product of formal skills training. Despite the evolution of higher education, the basic premise of college and graduate studies continues to revolve around vocational learning and training. This paper will review the history of higher learning to demonstrate the fact that secondary and post-secondary education is still very much a part of the apprenticeship system of learning. I chose to study secondary education becuase I work in that industry and I enjoy teaching adults. The other reason that I have chosen to study secondary education is in part due to the current economic situation in California. Today, more than ever, adults are returning to school for added training or career transitions. In some ways, history is repeating itself. For example, the labor market is once again demanding a college degree alon with specialized experience as well as completion of graduate school for higher paying jobs. This is nothing new, simply a repeat of the industrial revolution all over again. The only exception is that new we have the Internet and a growing number of new technological advances to take into consideration. Historically, secondary education was something that men completed on thier own accord in order to support a family. Today, the student population is very diverse and tuition may be supported by the community,
government or the student's family, but the role of higher education is unchanged.

Early Higher Education
Thanks to Hillary Clinton’s famous use of the African proverb in 1996, "It takes a village to raise a child," the debate over the role of government and communities in supporting families and children has become a focal point. While early childhood education centered on the fundamentals of math, reading and writing, secondary education was primarily for men to learn practical skills in order to support a family. Higher education in America is a product of an extended evolutionary process. Religious economic, educational and societal issues have influenced higher education throughout the history of the United States.

During Colonial times, the notion of higher education in America can be credited to apprenticeship agreements and/or religious training. The first formalized higher learning schools during Colonial times were focused on producing Puritan ministers and clergy.

While religious training dominated higher learning, vocational skills become a prominent topic among American educators as a result of the shift to an industrial economic base. Thus, the Morrill Land Grant Bill was signed by Congress to set federal dollars aside for the establishment of Universities focusing on training students for jobs in agriculture, science, technology and mechanical arts for each state in the US. (1999)

The Private University
In 1636, Harvard University opened and students studying for the ministry were given free tuition. Next, Yale College as founded in 1701, followed by Princeton University, Stanford University, Brown University, Columbia University and Dartmouth College. While wealthy Philanthropists endowed many of the private institutions, states began funding their own colleges also with a strict emphasis on academics, law and/ or medicine but at lower tuition rates. (1965)

The Higher Education Act
After World War II, Congress passed the GI Bill in 1944 to give men returning from war the opportunity for free education. With industrial production still at an all-time high, The Higher Education Act (HEA) was enacted in 1965 so that federal scholarships and low-interest loans could be awarded to those students unable to afford tuition fees for higher learning. In addition, local community colleges were established while a separate education bill was passed to ensure the development and expansion of state dental and medical schools. (2009)
More importantly, the Higher Education law was intended “to strengthen the educational resources of colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education. Specifically, the Act increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans for students, and established a National Teachers Corps. This was the first establishment of a "Financial Aid" system for students. Despite its reauthorization over the years, HEA is still active, set to expire at the end of 2013.

The Civil Rights Movement
From the early 1890s to 1915, Booker T. Washington was a dominant black political and educational leader in the United States. He established and led the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, an all-black college for black students to gain access to higher learning. (1996)

With the Civil Rights movement, state colleges and universities started to become culturally diverse. Although African-Americans and women had their separate colleges, the Civil Rights movement directed public colleges and universities to accept students regardless of race, gender or nationality.

The Internet Bubble
The begining of the information-technology revolution can be marked by the rise (and fall) of several fast moving Interet companies recieving venture capital for growth from Silicon Valley. During this period, a multitude of small web-based companies hit the stock market at an all time record. From 1997 to 2001, individuals profited in an open market with a combination of rapidly increasing stock prices and market confidence that the companies would turn future profits in favor of technology. Cities all over the United States sought to become the next "Silicon Valley" by building network-enabled office space to attract Internet entrepreneurs regardless of educational background. Not surprisingly, the "growth over profits" mentality inevitably led some companies to engage in lavish internal spending, such as elaborate business facilities and luxury vacations for employees. Executives and employees who were paid with stock options instead of cash became instant millionaires when the company made its initial public offering; many invested their new wealth into yet more dot-coms. (2004) Unfortunately, the dot-com bubble popped almost as fast as it flew into town. By 2001 the bubble was deflating at full speed. A majority of the dot-coms ceased trading after burning through their venture capital, many having never made a profit.

Nevertheless, laid-off technology experts, such as computer programmers, found a glutted job market. University degree programs for computer-related careers saw a noticeable drop in new students. It was rumored that unemployed programmers were going back to school to become accountants or lawyers.

Higher Education Today
Today, a college education is a standard for most students after graduation from high school. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, more than 30% of U.S. adults 25 and older had at least a Bachelor's Degree in March 2011. During this time in California, the median household income averaged $62,000.00 per year. A student having graduated from a four-year college can expect to obtain a well-rounded secondary education and qualify for professional employment without having to worry about manual labor. A Bachelor's quickly becomes the normal standard as students continue to graduate from four-year college and universities.

In 2012, over 50% of U.S. adults reported having a Bachelor's Degree or higher. Thus, a higher salaried job requires a post-secondary degree. Needless to say, the employment market is more competitive than ever. As a result, there is an ever growing need for "specialists". The specialist is one who can emerse him/herself in the field so much so that they become an expert in the field. Even the young entreprenuer will seek out a "specialist" or expert for employment.

Thus, the age of the Internet and innovative technology revolution have still not changed the role of higher education as it continues to be the place for students to continue learning, hone their skills and develop into skilled practitioners.

Conclusion
Now, more than ever, adults are returning to school for added training or career transitions. The labor market is once again demanding a college degree along with specialized experience as well as completion of graduate school for higher paying jobs. Even with the Internet and a growing number of new technological advances to take into consideration, the demand still exists for specialization. Historically, secondary education was something that men completed on thier own accord in order to learn the necessary skills to support his family. Today, the student population is very diverse and tuition may be supported by the government or local community but the role of higher education remains unchanged.

References:
Burd, Stephen. (2003), “Institutions Serving Minority Students Propose Changes to Higher Education Act,” Chronicle of Higher Education 49, no. 26.

Glenn Altschuler and Stuart Blumin (2009) The GI Bill: The New Deal for Veterans

Gordon, Howard R. D. (1999). The History and Growth of Vocational Education in America. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Johnson, Keith V. 1996. "Some Thoughts on African Americans' Struggle to Participate in
Technology Education." The Journal of Technology Studies 22 (1):49 - 54.

Lane, Kristina. (2003), “Bill Would Expand Higher Ed. Access for Minorities, Low-Income Students,” Community College Week 16, no. 4: 3.

Laurence Veysey (1965) The Emergence of the American University

Armstrong, D., Henson, K., & Savage, T. (2009). Teaching today: An introduction to education
(8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Lowenstein, Roger. (2004). Origins of the Crash: The Great Bubble and Its Undoing. Penguin Books; ISBN 978-1-59420-003-8.; pp. 114-115

Winner, Melinda (28 January 2009). "The Serious Need for Play". Scientific American.

Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities

Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University
EDU620: Meeting Individual Student Needs with Technology (MRC1340B)
Instructor: Kimberly Hall
10/7/13
 
Overview
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the school district is mandated by state and federal law to provide assistive technology to all students with disabilities if it is required for them to receive a free appropriate public education (FAPE). Each Individualized Education Program (IEP) team must determine if assistive technology is needed by that student. If assistive technology is deemed necessary, it will be written into the student’s Individualized Educational Program. (2007)

The Assistive Technology Act is intended to promote people’s awareness of and access to, assistive technology (AT) devices and services. Additionally, the goal is to provide AT to persons with disabilities, so they can more fully participate in education, employment, and daily activities on a level playing field with other members of their communities. The Act covers people with disabilities of all ages, all disabilities, in all environments (early intervention, K-12, post-secondary, vocational rehabilitation, community living, aging services, etc.). This report will provide an outline of the Assistive Technology Act and its impact on education.

Definition of Assistive Technology Act
The Assistive Technology Act of 2004 defines an Assistive Technology Device as such:

“Any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.” (2007)

What is classified as Assistive Technology?
There are thousands of items that can be classified as assistive technology and many ways to think about assistive technology. For example, the following categories are helpful to think about assistive technology:
o Computer Access
o Learning/Studying
o Vision
o Motor Aspects of Writing
o Vocational
o Mobility
o Composing Written Material
o Math/Reading
o Communication
o Electronic Aids for Daily Living
o Recreation & Leisure
o Hearing

Specifically, assistive technology devices either “low tech,” “medium tech,” or “high tech” and may be identified as any of the following types of equipment:

o Power and manual wheelchairs, scooters, canes, walkers, and standing devices;
o Augmentative communication devices such as voice amplifiers, and speech recognition devices;
o Durable medical equipment and medical supplies, such as patient lifts and incontinence supplies;
o Orthotics and prosthetics, such as hearing aids and electric larynxes;
o Accessibility adaptations to the home, workplace, schools, group homes, nursing facilities and ICF/MRs;
o Ramps, stair glides, lifts, grab bars, flashing smoke detectors, lever doorknobs and environmental controls;
o Special equipment to help people work, study such as enlarged computer keyboards,
o Reachers, amplified telephones, magnifiers, voice recognition software, and adaptive sports equipment;
o Accessibility modifications in the community, such as audio systems on public transportation, talking.

Impact of Assistive Technology in Education
In education, assistive technology includes the use of software and is a required consideration for special education students. Assistive Technology can be useful for educators whose students have mild, moderate or severe learning disabilities. For example, if a student has trouble speaking or forming words for the teacher to interpret, there are many items and devices that can be used to help increase or “augment” the student’s ability to communicate. These include pictures, symbols, and printed words. They may simply be printed on pieces of paper or cardboard or used on a computer or special dedicated device. As a result, augmentative communication devices are categorized as an assistive technology and may include the following examples:

• Communication board/book with pictures/objects/letters/words
• Eye gaze board/frame
• Simple voice output device (e.g., BIGmack®, Cheap Talk, Voice-in-a-Box, MicroVoice)
• Voice output device with levels (e.g., Tech Speak, Macaw,)
• Voice output device with icon sequencing (e.g., Vanguard ™ II, Chatbox®)
• Voice output device with dynamic display
• Dynavox, Speaking Dynamically™ Prowith laptop computer, Portable Impact Handheld
• Device with speech synthesis for typing (Cannon Communicator, Link, Write:Out Loud laptop computer)

Currently, many teacher preparation programs do not include a component of software evaluation and its use with special education students for managing information and determining student needs. Thus, a teacher may not be aware of beneficial Assistive Technology software. As a result, many states require special education teachers to be technologically competent and knowledgeable enough to select developmentally appropriate software and to understand and delineate the related benefits of the software, and to align software skills with curriculum. Special education teachers must understand how software may provide opportunities for the student with disabilities to control environments, to stimulate imagination, to interact with others, and to use open-ended exploration to facilitate development of higher order skills.

Benefits of Assistive Technology in Education
Many educators believe that the practice of educating all or most children in the same classroom, including children with physical, mental, and developmental disabilities fosters a sense of inclusion for all students. Additionally, research indicates that 15-20% of the general population is in need of some type of “cognitive task assistance.” (1995) While a large population of “at risk” students are also in need of special learning assistance, but because they don’t easily fit into a diagnostic profile, they do not receive assistance; however if AT is available to everyone, these students could benefit since AT helps students who have disabilities learn the material in a way that they can understand it. As a result, AT can help eliminate barriers students may face that prevent them from being at the same level as their classmates. (1995)

Then, as a student’s schoolwork gets more advanced, their technology needs may change or increase. New technology may become available that will better meet the needs of the student. During a regularly scheduled evaluation, the Individualized Education Program (IEP) team or another professional may decide that another piece of technology will be better for the student.


Conclusion
The bottom line is that any student with a disability from mild to severe may benefit from the use of assistive technology. There is assistive technology to help an individual with reading, writing, remembering, walking, sitting, seeing, hearing, and communicating. Assistive technology has the powerful potential of impacting significantly upon a student with disabilities by contributing to his or her learning, independence, self-esteem, and quality of life. (2007) Any student who needs help with any of these life functions may benefit significantly from the use of assistive technology and should have access these resources and services.
 
References:
Behrmann, M. (1995). Assistive Technology for Students with Mild Disabilities. ERIC Document ED378755,

Golden, D. (1998); Assistive Technology in Special Education: Policy and Practice; Council of Administrators of Special Education, 615 16th St. NW, Albuquerque, NM 87104.

Higgins, Kyle & Boone, Randall, (2007) Journal of Special Education Technology, JSET Editors, Dept. of Spec. Ed., UNLV, 4505 Maryland Pkwy. Box 453014, Las Vegas, NV 89154-3014

Hopkins, J. (2006). Assistive technology: Ten things to know. Library Media Connection, 25(1), 12-14.

Netherton, D., & Deal, W. (2006). Assistive Technology in the Classroom. Technology Teacher, 66(1), 10-15.

Reed, P. (2007) Assistive Technology Resource Guide for Teachers and Administrators; Wisconsin Assistive Technology Initiative; AT Video Series, Wisconsin Assistive Technology Initiative, WATI, Polk Library, 800

WATI, (2000). Showcasing Assistive Technology in Wisconsin Schools, Oshkosh, WI: Wisconsin Assistive Technology Initiative, (WATI, Polk Library, 800 Algoma Blvd., Oshkosh, WI 54901. www.wati.org.

Testing Learner Performance

Testing Learner Performance
Author: Nicole Marie Sartin
EDU645: Learning & Assessment for the 21st Century
Ashford University, Clinton Ohio
Instructor: Dr. Bridget Griggs
September 30, 2013


Overview
Perhaps you don't need a business plan to start a hobby or network with a group of friends after work, but if you are deciding to develop a business in order to make money or produce a new product to market, then developing a business plan is an essential component for the venture. In business, anybody beginning or extending a venture that will consume significant resources of money, energy or time, and that is expected to return a profit should have some kind of a business plan. Today, there are several books and classes available to teach entrepreneurs the art of business plan writing. But how can you tell if students taking a course in business writing will be able to produce effective business plans upon graduation? As any educator will attest, one of the primary goals of education is to ensure that students are capable of completing tasks. That goal can be tested in many ways.

This research paper will outline a hypothetical assessment plan to measure the effectiveness of a lesson plan meant to teach students how to write a business plan. Furthermore, this paper will explain the selection of assessment context, evaluate a holistic rubric, and define the testing constraints. In the end, this paper will demonstrate the use of assessment tools to promote learner performance for just about any lesson geared towards teaching students a specific task.

Lesson Plan: Business Plan Writing 101
This course is module one of a Six-Module Business Diploma Program for students with a high school degree seeking further education in business administration. This course introduces the essential concepts of writing a business plan. Students achieve an understanding of the purpose of a business plan, how to write an effective business plan, and how to use it for the benefit of a company.

Learning Objectives:
• Assess the purpose of a business plan and its importance to an organization.
• Determine ways to use a business plan for the benefit of a company.
• Students will develop a hypothetical business plan.

Learning Outcome:
• Demonstrate an understanding of how to write a professional business plan which positively highlights a business for acceptance by investors.

Testing:
• Students will be asked to define the importance and functions of a business plan.
• Students will be tested on the components and structure of a business plan.
• Students will be tested on their ability to effectively write a business plan.

Hypothetical Assessment
Most educators would agree that learning often requires students to engage in problem-solving activities. Thus, knowledge can be attained not just by receiving information, but also by interpreting the information and relating it to the student's knowledge base. Therefore, what should be assessed is the learner's ability to organize, structure, and use information in context to solve complex problems. As Grant Wiggins, EdD, President and director of programs for Relearning by Design for students in New Jersey, said, "Assessment should be deliberately designed to improve and educate student performance, not merely to audit as most school tests currently do" (2013). In this hypothetical assessment, we will utilize standardized testing during the course and summative test at the end of the course with constraints.

Standardized Testing
During the course, students will be given two standardized tests consisting of true/false and multiple choice questions to test their knowledge of a professional business plan. Since standardized tests are administered and scored in a consistent, or "standard", manner and designed in such a way that the questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are also consistent, we will this type of assessment tool to ensure accuracy and consistency throughout the course.

Summative Testing
In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade. Since summative assessments are purely evaluative and carried out at the end of a course or project, we will use summative testing to ensure the validity of learner performance. As a result, the summative test will act as a final measurement of learner performance upon completion of the course.

Testing Constraints:
A. Students will be given two standardized tests, each with a 90-minute time limit. Test questions will consist of true/false and multiple choices in order to demonstrate knowledge of a professional business plan. Tests will be administered throughout the course in class.

B. Students will be given a summative test upon the completion of the course. The test will ask students to write a hypothetical business plan based upon a specified scenario. Students will have two days to complete and submit the assignment.

By administering both standardized and summative testing along with the testing constraints, we can ensure high consistency and high reliability to yield a valid and accurate assessment of learner performance.

Holistic Rubric
Generally defined, a rubric is a multidimensional set of scoring guidelines that can be used to provide consistency in evaluating student work. (1994) Specially, they spell out scoring criteria so that multiple teachers, using the same rubric for a student's essay, for example, would arrive at the same score or grade. In this hypothetical assessment, we will use a Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric to score the final summative test of the student’s ability to write an effective business plan. In contrast to an analytic rubric, a Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric does not list separate levels of performance for each criterion. Instead, this holistic rubric assigns a level of performance by assessing performance across multiple criteria as a whole. Below is a detailed outline of the Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric for this assessment:

4 Consistently does all or almost all of the following:
• Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, financials, questions, etc.
• Identifies the salient business concept (reasons and claims) pro and con.
• Thoughtfully analyzes and evaluates major alternative points of view.
• Draws warranted judicious, non-fallacious conclusions.
• Justifies key results and procedures, explains assumptions and reasons.
• Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.

3 Does most or many of the following:
• Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, financials, questions, etc.
• Identifies relevant business concept (reasons and claims) pro and con.
• Offers analyses and evaluations of obvious alternative points of view.
• Draws warranted non-fallacious conclusions.
• Justifies some results or procedures, explains reasons.
• Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.

2 Does most or many of the following:
• Misinterprets evidence, statements, graphics, financials, questions, etc.
• Fails to identify strong business concept and relevant counter-arguments.
• Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view.
• Draws unwarranted or fallacious conclusions.
• Justifies few results or procedures, seldom explains reasons.
• Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-interest or preconceptions.

1 Consistently does all or almost all of the following:
• Offers biased interpretations of evidence, statements, graphics, financials, questions, etc. information, or the points of view of others.
• Fails to identify business concept or hastily dismisses strong, relevant counter-arguments.
• Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view.
• Argues using fallacious or irrelevant reasons, and unwarranted claims.
• Does not justify results or procedures, nor explain reasons.
• Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-interest or preconceptions.
• Exhibits close-mindedness or hostility to reason.

Why use a Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric?
Holistic scoring requires focus and a fluid thought process. In any essay, presentation, or clinical practice setting many elements must come together for overall success: critical thinking, content knowledge, and technical skill or craftsmanship. (1994) Deficits or strengths in any of these can draw the attention of the rater. It is for this reason that the Holistic Rubric approach was chosen as the final assessment tool for this hypothetical analysis. More importantly, this four-level Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric treats critical thinking as a set of cognitive skills supported by certain personal dispositions since the evaluation is based upon effectively writing a business plan. Thus, the assessment centers on evaluating the student’s ability to critically detail a business concept; outline financial highlights and requirements; outline the competition and defend the company’s potential for success despite a saturated market and list any achievements or strengths including marketing of new products. In other words, the student is not being evaluated on whether or not he/she understands the components of a professional business plan, but rather how well he/she leverage a professional business plan to strategically organize information which positively highlights the business for acceptance by investors. Critical thinking is not typically something that a standardized test can accurately measure. To reach a judicious, purposive judgment a good critical thinker engages in analysis, interpretation, evaluation, inference, explanation, and meta-cognitive self-regulation. The best way to measure such critical cognitive skills is to employ a holistic critical thinking rubric. With this approach, an educator can be assured that students will meet the learning objective if they apply themselves properly.

Conclusion
As educators continue to teach, how do they ensure that their students are actually learning the concepts in order to be effective producers upon graduation? As outlined in this research paper, educators can utilize standardized and summative testing to measure learner performance.

Additionally, educators can employ assessment tools such as a Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric to measure the critical thinking skills of their students. As a result, students will not only learn core objectives and comprehend curriculum concepts; they will be able to affectively demonstrate the learning outcome in a real-world environment.

Ultimately, educators can feel confident that their students will receive a qualified learning experience if they properly engage themselves.

References
Facione, Peter A. and Facione, Noreen C. (1994). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction; California Academic Press; 217 La Cruz Ave., Millbrae, CA 94030. (PAF49:R4.2:062694)

Key, James P. (1997) Research Design in Occupational Education; Published by Oklahoma State University.
Kubiszyn, T. & Borich, G. (2010). Educational testing & measurement: Classroom application and practice (9th Ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ.

Miller, Andrew. (2013) Critical Assessment Ideas from PBL World. Published by The George Lucas Educational Foundation; retrieved from: http://www.edutopia.org/blog/critical-assessment-ideas-pbl-world-andrew-miller

Compare and contrast formative and summative assessment. What is the purpose of each, as it relates to learning? How might an educator use each to reflect on his or her teaching strategies?

Formative & Summative Assessment Comparison
Author: Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University, Clinton Ohio
EDU 645: Learning & Assessment for the 21st Century
Instructor: Dr. Bridget Griggs


Formative assessment is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures employed by teachers during the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to improve student attainment. (2013) Furthermore, formative assessments typically involve qualitative feedback rather than scores of content and performance for both the teacher and the student. The purpose of this assessment is to support learning during the learning process. Specifically, formative assessments are meant to guide the teachers’ decision making about future instruction while providing useful feedback to the students so that they are able to make improvements. For example, a teacher may ask her students to write down, in a brainstorm activity, all they know about how hot-air balloons so that she can discover what students already know about the area of science that she is intending to teach.

In contrast, summative assessments are conducted after a unit or certain time period to determine how much learning has taken place. A summative assessment aims to summarize learning up to a specific point. Typically, upon completion of a unit of work, the learner sits for a test and the teacher marks the test and assigns a score. These tests may also be used for diagnostic assessment to identify any weaknesses and then build on that using formative assessment. Teachers may use this test to examine whether or not the learners were able to learn what they were supposed to learn after instruction. Summative assessment does not bother to assess "how they did," but more importantly, by looking at how the learners performed, it provides information as to whether the instructor teaches what they were supposed to teach.

Formative assessment is typically contrasted with summative assessment. The former supports teachers and students in decision-making during educational and learning processes, while the latter occurs at the end of a learning unit and determines if the content being taught was retained.

Reference
Kubiszyn, T. & Borich, G. (2013). Educational testing & measurement: Classroom application and practice (10th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

My Philosophy on Education

Author: Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University
EDU 623: Introduction to Teaching & Learning
Instructor: Dennis Lawrence
My Philosophy on Education
8/8/13


How do children learn? Based on the early research and philosophy of Jean Piaget, children learn through “play-based” activities. (2009) Years later, a number of authors and researchers investigated the impact of early childhood education relevant to the psychology of early childhood development. While some conclude that a child’s education is dependent upon good parenting and socioeconomic factors. Research shows that providing a high quality education for children before they turn five yields significant long-term benefits. (2009)

Thanks to Hillary Clinton’s famous use of the African proverb in 1996, "It takes a village to raise a child," the debate over the role of government and communities in supporting families and children has become a focal point. As an only child of divorced, minority parents my philosophy on education is similar to Piaget’s theory: “children learn by doing”. Furthermore, since all children learn differently, education is a process that must be stimulated, encouraged and fostered by parents, teachers, role models and community leaders.

My mother played an integral role in my education. She insured that my playtime was geared towards learning and development. While I had a few dolls and an Easy-Bake-Oven, most of my toys were educational. I belonged to a children’s book club which sent a new Dr. Seuss book to our home each month. My mom also took me to the library on a regular basis for finger-painting activities, reading events and puppet-shows. She was on first-name basis with the librarian and I had my own library card just as I started walking. Needless to say, I was speaking, reading and writing at an early age. During this time, I attended a private pre-school which lead to an elementary school which was known for teaching exceptional young children.

At the age of ten, my parents had divorced and I attended public school with my father from junior high until graduating high school. I must admit that public school was a lot easier for me and I did not study nearly as much as I my teachers requested. But I was still an avid reader and an active member of the drill-team, glee, speech and debate, music and drama clubs in school. Despite my academic “laziness”, several of my teachers saw fit to comment on my being an above average student. These teachers not only made sure that my parents knew that I was a good student, but they also saw to it that the administration at my school paid close attention to me. As a result, I managed to remain a good student within the top 80% of my class. I received recognition in school bulletin on a weekly basis, received numerous awards for winning speech debates, was placed in all honors classes and allowed to be an assistant teacher as well as assistant producer to the drama coach. None of these special assignments were due to my being a popular student or maintain a 4.0 GPA. In fact, it wasn’t until I ran for class president and lost that I realized that I wasn’t the only high school “sweetheart”. Needless to say, my popularity or GPA was not what helped me succeed during my junior high and high school years.

As I prepared for graduation, I was chosen to give the Baccalaureate speech at my high to the student body. It was an honor chosen by the administration, not the students. Thus, I took the leadership role very seriously. Graduation meant leaving many of our friends, favorite teachers and mentors to go to college. As I addressed my fellow students, I discussed the paths which lead us to graduation as well as the next steps leading us all to college and adulthood.

For me, college was a natural part of growing-up. Most of my role models were doctors, lawyers, teachers or business owners whom had already completed years of higher learning in order to gain the skills necessary for those occupations. Thus, my parents, mentors and friends all helped me decide which college I would attend after high school.

I chose to study speech communication at the California University of Los Angeles. The school had the best program for my major, an affordable tuition and the format was taught on the quarter system. This meant that I would not need a student loan, could live with my mother and graduate faster than those schools on the semester system. Attending CSULA was a positive learning experience for me. I was fortunate enough to have one of the teachers as a mentor to guide me through the program. During my studies, my mentor facilitated two internships for me with Fleishman-Hillard and Bozell Communications Worldwide. These experiences were invaluable. Both opportunities were paid internships which not only enhanced my learning experience while in school, but also lead to my first job just after graduation. After graduation, I was ready to put everything that I’d learned into practice on my first job.

My learning was stimulated at an early age and my education was encouraged, shaped and fostered for me throughout my entire life. Thus, my philosophy on education is still the same: “children learn by doing”. More importantly, since all children learn differently, education is a process that must be stimulated, encouraged and fostered by parents, teachers, role models and community leaders.

 
References:
Armstrong, D., Henson, K., & Savage, T. (2009). Teaching today: An introduction to education
(8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

“Long-Term Benefits of Early Childhood Education". National Education Association. 2013.

Winner, Melinda (28 January 2009). "The Serious Need for Play". Scientific American.

How has history influenced higher education?

Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University
EDU623: Introduction to Teaching & Learning


Higher education in America is a product of an extended evolutionary process. Religious economic, educational and societal issues have influenced higher education throughout the history of the United States.

During Colonial times, the notion of higher education in America can be credited to apprenticeship agreements and/or religious training. The first formalized higher learning schools during Colonial times were focused on producing Puritan ministers and clergy.

While religious training dominated higher learning, vocational skills become a prominent topic among American educators as a result of the shift to an industrial economic base. Thus, the Morrill Land Grant Bill was signed by Congress to set federal dollars aside for the establishment of Universities focusing on training students for jobs in agriculture, science, technology and mechanical arts for each state in the US. (1999)

In 1636, Harvard University opened and students studying for the ministry were given free tuition. Next, Yale College as founded in 1701, followed by Princeton University, Stanford University, Brown University, Columbia University and Dartmouth College. While wealthy Philanthropists endowed many of the private institutions, states began funding their own colleges also with a strict emphasis on academics, law and/ or medicine but at lower tuition rates. (1965)

After World War II, Congress passed the GI Bill in 1944 to give men returning from war the opportunity for free education. With industrial production still at an all-time high, The Higher Education Act was enacted in 1965 so that federal scholarships and low-interest loans could be awarded to those students unable to afford tuition fees for higher learning. In addition, local community colleges were established while a separate education bill was passed to ensure the development and expansion of state dental and medical schools. (2009)

From the early 1890s to 1915, Booker T. Washington was a dominant black political and educational leader in the United States. He established and led the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, an all-black college for black students to gain access to higher learning. (1996)

With the Civil Rights movement, state colleges and universities started to become culturally diverse. Although African-Americans and women had their separate colleges, the Civil Rights movement directed public colleges and universities to accept students regardless of race, gender or nationality.

Today, higher learning institutions are focused on preparing students to complete academically and professionally in a global economy. But not much has changed. Many colleges, universities, community colleges and vocational schools are still focusing on maintaining high academic standards, innovative technology training and workforce readiness.

References:
Glenn Altschuler and Stuart Blumin, The GI Bill: The New Deal for Veterans (2009)

Gordon, Howard R. D. 1999. The History and Growth of Vocational Education in America.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Johnson, Keith V. 1996. "Some Thoughts on African Americans' Struggle to Participate in
Technology Education." The Journal of Technology Studies 22 (1):49 - 54.

Laurence Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (1965)

Testing for Learner Performance

Author: Nicole Marie Sartin
EDU645: Learning and Assessment for the 21st Century
Ashford University, Clinton Ohio
Instructor: Dr. Bridget Griggs
September 30, 2013

Overview
Perhaps you don't need a business plan to start a hobby or network with a group of friends after work, but if you are deciding to develop a business in order to make money or produce a new product to market, then developing a business plan is an essential component for the venture. In business, anybody beginning or extending a venture that will consume significant resources of money, energy or time, and that is expected to return a profit should have some kind of a business plan. Today, there are several books and classes available to teach entrepreneurs the art of business plan writing. But how can you tell if students taking a course in business writing will be able to produce effective business plans upon graduation? As any educator will attest, one of the primary goals of education is to ensure that students are capable of completing tasks. That goal can be tested in many ways.

This research paper will outline a hypothetical assessment plan to measure the effectiveness of a lesson plan meant to teach students how to write a business plan. Furthermore, this paper will explain the selection of assessment context, evaluate a holistic rubric, and define the testing constraints. In the end, this paper will demonstrate the use of assessment tools to promote learner performance for just about any lesson geared towards teaching students a specific task.

Lesson Plan: Business Plan Writing 101
This course is module one of a Six-Module Business Diploma Program for students with a high school degree seeking further education in business administration. This course introduces the essential concepts of writing a business plan. Students achieve an understanding of the purpose of a business plan, how to write an effective business plan, and how to use it for the benefit of a company.
Learning Objectives:
• Assess the purpose of a business plan and its importance to an organization.
• Determine ways to use a business plan for the benefit of a company.
• Students will develop a hypothetical business plan.
Learning Outcome:
• Demonstrate an understanding of how to write a professional business plan which positively highlights a business for acceptance by investors.
Testing:
• Students will be asked to define the importance and functions of a business plan.
• Students will be tested on the components and structure of a business plan.
• Students will be tested on their ability to effectively write a business plan.

Hypothetical Assessment
Most educators would agree that learning often requires students to engage in problem-solving activities. Thus, knowledge can be attained not just by receiving information, but also by interpreting the information and relating it to the student's knowledge base. Therefore, what should be assessed is the learner's ability to organize, structure, and use information in context to solve complex problems. As Grant Wiggins, EdD, President and director of programs for Relearning by Design for students in New Jersey, said, "Assessment should be deliberately designed to improve and educate student performance, not merely to audit as most school tests currently do" (2013). In this hypothetical assessment, we will utilize standardized testing during the course and summative test at the end of the course with constraints.

Standardized Testing
During the course, students will be given two standardized tests consisting of true/false and multiple choice questions to test their knowledge of a professional business plan. Since standardized tests are administered and scored in a consistent, or "standard", manner and designed in such a way that the questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are also consistent, we will this type of assessment tool to ensure accuracy and consistency throughout the course.

Summative Testing
In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade. Since summative assessments are purely evaluative and carried out at the end of a course or project, we will use summative testing to ensure the validity of learner performance. As a result, the summative test will act as a final measurement of learner performance upon completion of the course.

Testing Constraints:
A. Students will be given two standardized tests, each with a 90-minute time limit. Test questions will consist of true/false and multiple choices in order to demonstrate knowledge of a professional business plan. Tests will be administered throughout the course in class.

B. Students will be given a summative test upon the completion of the course. The test will ask students to write a hypothetical business plan based upon a specified scenario. Students will have two days to complete and submit the assignment.

By administering both standardized and summative testing along with the testing constraints, we can ensure high consistency and high reliability to yield a valid and accurate assessment of learner performance.

Holistic Rubric
Generally defined, a rubric is a multidimensional set of scoring guidelines that can be used to provide consistency in evaluating student work. (1994) Specially, they spell out scoring criteria so that multiple teachers, using the same rubric for a student's essay, for example, would arrive at the same score or grade. In this hypothetical assessment, we will use a Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric to score the final summative test of the student’s ability to write an effective business plan. In contrast to an analytic rubric, a Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric does not list separate levels of performance for each criterion. Instead, this holistic rubric assigns a level of performance by assessing performance across multiple criteria as a whole.

Below is a detailed outline of the Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric for this assessment:

4 = Consistently does all or almost all of the following:
• Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, financials, questions, etc.
• Identifies the salient business concept (reasons and claims) pro and con.
• Thoughtfully analyzes and evaluates major alternative points of view.
• Draws warranted judicious, non-fallacious conclusions.
• Justifies key results and procedures, explains assumptions and reasons.
• Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.

3 = Does most or many of the following:
• Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics, financials, questions, etc.
• Identifies relevant business concept (reasons and claims) pro and con.
• Offers analyses and evaluations of obvious alternative points of view.
• Draws warranted non-fallacious conclusions.
• Justifies some results or procedures, explains reasons.
• Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.

2 = Does most or many of the following:
• Misinterprets evidence, statements, graphics, financials, questions, etc.
• Fails to identify strong business concept and relevant counter-arguments.
• Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view.
• Draws unwarranted or fallacious conclusions.
• Justifies few results or procedures, seldom explains reasons.
• Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-interest or preconceptions.

1 = Consistently does all or almost all of the following:
• Offers biased interpretations of evidence, statements, graphics, financials, questions, etc. information, or the points of view of others.
• Fails to identify business concept or hastily dismisses strong, relevant counter-arguments.
• Ignores or superficially evaluates obvious alternative points of view.
• Argues using fallacious or irrelevant reasons, and unwarranted claims.
• Does not justify results or procedures, nor explain reasons.
• Regardless of the evidence or reasons, maintains or defends views based on self-interest or preconceptions.
• Exhibits close-mindedness or hostility to reason.


Why use a Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric?
Holistic scoring requires focus and a fluid thought process. In any essay, presentation, or clinical practice setting many elements must come together for overall success: critical thinking, content knowledge, and technical skill or craftsmanship. (1994) Deficits or strengths in any of these can draw the attention of the rater. It is for this reason that the Holistic Rubric approach was chosen as the final assessment tool for this hypothetical analysis.

More importantly, this four-level Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric treats critical thinking as a set of cognitive skills supported by certain personal dispositions since the evaluation is based upon effectively writing a business plan. Thus, the assessment centers on evaluating the student’s ability to critically detail a business concept; outline financial highlights and requirements; outline the competition and defend the company’s potential for success despite a saturated market and list any achievements or strengths including marketing of new products. In other words, the student is not being evaluated on whether or not he/she understands the components of a professional business plan, but rather how well he/she leverage a professional business plan to strategically organize information which positively highlights the business for acceptance by investors. Critical thinking is not typically something that a standardized test can accurately measure. To reach a judicious, purposive judgment a good critical thinker engages in analysis, interpretation, evaluation, inference, explanation, and meta-cognitive self-regulation.

The best way to measure such critical cognitive skills is to employ a holistic critical thinking rubric. With this approach, an educator can be assured that students will meet the learning objective if they apply themselves properly.

Conclusion
As educators continue to teach, how do they ensure that their students are actually learning the concepts in order to be effective producers upon graduation? As outlined in this research paper, educators can utilize standardized and summative testing to measure learner performance. Additionally, educators can employ assessment tools such as a Holistic Critical Thinking Rubric to measure the critical thinking skills of their students. As a result, students will not only learn core objectives and comprehend curriculum concepts; they will be able to affectively demonstrate the learning outcome in a real-world environment.

Ultimately, educators can feel confident that their students will receive a qualified learning experience if they properly engage themselves.

References
Facione, Peter A. and Facione, Noreen C. (1994). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction; California Academic Press; 217 La Cruz Ave., Millbrae, CA 94030. (PAF49:R4.2:062694)

Key, James P. (1997) Research Design in Occupational Education; Published by Oklahoma State University.
Kubiszyn, T. & Borich, G. (2010). Educational testing & measurement: Classroom application and practice (9th Ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ.

Miller, Andrew. (2013) Critical Assessment Ideas from PBL World. Published by The George Lucas Educational Foundation; retrieved from: http://www.edutopia.org/blog/critical-assessment-ideas-pbl-world-andrew-miller

Did The No Child Left Behind Act Raise False Hopes?

Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University
EDU 623: Introduction to Teaching and Learning
July 17, 2013

In January 2001, President George W. Bush proposed legislation for the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). (2007) The act was intended as a measure to close the achievement gap with accountability, flexibility and choice, so that no child is left behind. This paper will discuss whether or not the NCLB law was an effective measure to address low student performance or simply a set of high expectations unachievable goals destined to falsely raise the hopes and desires of Americans.

NCLB was designed to improve the academic performance of children in America's elementary and secondary schools and to ensure that no child is trapped in a failing school. Basically, the NCLB Act reauthorizes the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA, 1965) and incorporates the principles and strategies proposed by President Bush. (2007)

Provisions of the NCLB requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a state-wide standardized test annually to all students. This means that all students must take the same test under the same conditions.

Additionally, schools which receive funding must make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) in test scores. If the school's results are repeatedly poor, then steps are taken to improve the school. Furthermore, States must create AYP objectives consistent with requirements of the law which include measurable objectives for improved achievement by all students and for specific groups: economically disadvantaged students, students with disabilities, and students with limited English proficiency. (2007)

Finally, the act requires states to provide "highly qualified" teachers to all students. Each state sets its own standards for what counts as "highly qualified". Similarly, the act requires states to set "one high, challenging standard" for its students. Each state decides for itself what counts as "one high, challenging standard," but the curriculum standards must be applied to all students, rather than having different standards for students in different cities or other parts of the state. (2007)

Early critics of the proposed legislation centered around the naming of the law, sufficient funding (or lack thereof), definitions of proficiency, ethical issues and oversight, assessment criteria, testing cost and accountability, curricula issues, teacher tenure and flight, limitations of scientifically based research standards and leadership.

Many felt that the act was too ambitious and thought it would fail due to ambiguity. Representative Robert Etheridge of Rocky Mount, North Carolina was famously remembered for his comment about the potential of the act: "No Child Left Behind is expected to be reauthorized in September or October, but unless it includes components like a growth model, it won't pass." (2003)

Despite its controversy, the bill passed in the U.S. Congress with bipartisan support and was officially signed into law by President Bush in 2002.

U.S. Education Secretary, Dr. Roderick Paige publicly responded to critics of the No Child Left Behind Act with a memorable report calling the act a "revolution" that would do much to reverse a sub-par U.S. educational system that he compared to apartheid. (2003)

Paige pointed out that recent SAT scores showed that African American scores remained flat, and Hispanic scores went down over the last several years. By 12th grade, he said, just one in six African Americans and one in five Hispanics can read proficiently. Just 3 percent of African Americans and 4 percent of Hispanics are testing at the proficient level in math. He tied the academic performance of K-12 students to the country's future security. Paige referenced a report finding American students read, write and do math at worse rates than students in Asia and Europe. "Our students are falling behind, and there is every indication that, if we allow the guardians of the educational status quo to have their way, . . . our nation will be left behind," said Paige. "If current educational attainments are allowed to continue, underachievement will be a disaster, not only for our students, but our nation as well. Educational disparities threaten the country itself, our very way of life. We are facing an unrecognized educational crisis in this country. Our wide and sometimes growing achievement gap confirms that there is a two-tiered educational system," Paige said. "The vast majority of students left behind are disadvantaged or low income. Effectively, the education circumstances for these students are not unlike that of a de facto system of apartheid." (2003)

Nonetheless, critics argued that the focus on standardized testing encourages a narrow subset of skills in order to increase test performance, rather than developing a deeper understanding of the overall concepts of the curriculum. This is colloquially referred to as "teaching to the test."

However, supporters of the NCLB contend that the act was a legitimate response to the need for accountability in public schools. Proponents also agreed that NCLB provisions set a framework to improve the proficiency for all students and help close the achievement gap between White and non-White students.

Today, almost a decade since its inception, the NCBL act is still one of controversy. In fact, critics now site failed promises and disappointing test results with no evidence found to reflect improvement in closing the achievement gap between White and non-White students. Current opponents of the NCLB allege that the Act has not been effective in improving education as evidenced by mixed results in standardized tests in US schools. Additionally, teacher's unions, scholars and researchers have have expressed strong concerns regarding inequitable divisions of resources, minimal curriculm, high stakes testing versus multiple assessments and the failure of policy makers to include input from teachers.

As a student and teacher, I am grateful for the NCLB act. It gives me confidence and great pride to know that our schools must follow this legislation in an effort to produce smart, educated young people.

According to a report published by the Journal of Economic Perspectives concerning NCLB legislation, many teachers support the general principles underlying the No Child Left Behind legislation, especially the importance of improving the achievement of all children, including those from groups that have historically been neglected in many schools. They also applaud the principle that strong action should be taken to improve the performance of failing schools.

At the same time, teachers are still concerned that the incentives created by some provisions of the law have elicited unintended responses that have reduce the quality of education provided to at least some children. More importantly, many teachers feel see NCLB as dramatically damaging the quality of education provided to children, especially those attending schools under pressure to meet Adequate Yearly Progress.

While the NCLB is not perfect, it does provide a strong framework for accountability and academic achievement in public schools. It is my belief that our leadership should work together to modify and revise the original NCLB act in order to further define measures to raise academic achievement which included input from teachers as well as students. It is also important that our modifications are specific to the small learning communities serving specific students within specific states. If modifications are set forth by professional organizations, prominent researchers, and practitioners with input from teachers and students and tailored to specific small learning communities, then the potential for accomplishing the goal of high-performing students in all of the nation's schools is possible.

References:

Hammer, Ben. (2003) Black Issues in Higher Education; Vol.20 Issue 18; pg.6; Cox, Matthews & Associates, Inc.

Harrison-Jones, Lois (2007).Education No Child Left Behind and Implications for Black Students; The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 76, No. 3, Celebrating the Legacy of “TheJournal”: 75 Years of Facilitating Excellence in Black Education (Summer, 2007), pp. 346-356

Murnane, Richard J. and Papay, John P. (2010)Teacher's Views on No Child Left Behind: Support for the Principles, Concerns about the Practices; Journal of Economic Perspectives—Volume 24, Number 3; Pages 151–166

Paley, A. (2007). "No Child" Commission presents ambitious plan. The Washington Post, A3. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/archives

White, D. (2007) Pros & cons of No Child Left Behind. About Liberal Politics: U.S. Retrieved February 25, 2007, from http://usliberals.aboaut.eom/od/education/i/NCLBProsCons

Wikipedia. (2007). No Child Left Behind. Retrieved July 14, 2013, from http://campaigns.wikia.com/wiki/ NoChildLeftBehind

Author: Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University, Clinton Ohio
Professor: Dr. Bridget Griggs
September 1, 2013

Learning Objective
Adult students learn the importance of time management and organization for efficiency at school and work.

Learning Outcomes
*Adult students will learn how to properly manage time for both school and work projects each day. *Adult students will learn how to prioritize and schedule projects around personal time.
*Adult students learn to organize, categorize, research  to complete school & work projects.

Assessment
*Students will be given a list of required academic & professional activities to be accomplished each day for one week or seven days.

*Students will create a detailed schedule for one week, ranking those projects and activities according to priority and length of time needed to complete.

*Students will develop a list of potential resources and/or materials needed to complete all projects and activities due for that week.

Enhancing Curriculum and Delivery: Linking Assessment to Learning Objectives

Author: Nicole Marie Sartin
Ashford University, Clinton Ohio
Professor: Dr. Bridget Griggs


Learning Outcomes Rationale

Assessment is an integral part of instruction, as it determines whether or not the goals of education are being met. Today's students need to know not only the basic reading and arithmetic skills, but also skills that will allow them to face a world that is continually changing. They must be able to think critically, to analyze, and to make inferences. The goal of this lesson plan is to help students develop time management, organization and research skills for use in professional and academic setting. These learning objectives specifically focus on the student’s organization, problem solving and critical thinking skills. As outlined in this lesson plan, students will effectively learn how to create work schedules, conduct research and prioritize projects after completing each assessment activity.

Student Age group:
Junior College Adult students

Learning Objective:
Students learn the importance of time management and organization for efficiency at school & work.

Learning Outcomes:
1. Students will learn how to properly manage time for both school and work projects each day.

2. Students will learn how to prioritize and schedule projects around personal time.

3. Students will learn how to organize and categorize research needed to complete school and work projects.

Assessment:1. Students will be given a list of required academic & professional activities to be accomplished each day for one week or seven days.

2. Students will create a detailed schedule for one week, ranking those projects and activities according to priority and length of time needed to complete.

3. Students will develop a list of potential resources and/or materials needed to complete all projects and activities due for that week.

Testing:1. Students will be given the following scenario to complete.

Scenario: Ann is a medical student taking a class each Monday through Friday from 6am to 11am. She is a single mom working part-time at night each Monday through Friday from 5pm to 10pm while living with her grandmother who takes care of the baby. Based upon this scenario, develop a 7-day schedule for Ann to include school, work, study time, homework, personal time, sleep and meals using a 24-hour time frame.

Testing 2. Students will be asked to prioritize tasks based upon the following scenario. How would you prioritize these tasks to be completed the next day, based upon the supervisor’s note?

Scenario: David works as an office assistant for a large corporate company from 8am to 5pm on weekdays. On Monday, at 4:30pm David’s supervisor leaves a note on his desk: “Dear David: I will be out of the office tomorrow. In my absence, please complete the following tasks as soon as possible. Thank you, Susan Summers.”
Task List to be completed:-Contact Mr. Nelson and inform him that I will be out of the office today and will be unable to meet him this afternoon, but will be happy to reschedule the meeting for any day this week.

-Deliver the box of new letterhead in the mailroom to the sales office on the 5th floor.

-Contact Office Depot and get the invoice for the new product order and fax the invoice to the finance department, then coordinate delivery.

-Stamp and mail the employee letters on my desk.

-Find a local vendor to cater the employee breakfast next week within a $5,000 budget.

-Contact the list of new clients for the month to welcome then to the team. Make arrangements with the marketing team to send those clients all gifts next week.

-Check my voice mails and respond to inquiries, let them know that I am out of the office but will get back to them the following day.

-Check the complaint emails and respond.

-Order lunch for the Tuesday CEO meeting and arrange delivery using the company account.

-Check the company mailbox.

Testing 3. Students will be asked to organize and categorize research needed to complete school and work projects based upon the following scenarios.

Scenario: Research a list of the top 20 newspapers and radio stations in Los Angeles. Develop a list which contains the company name, address, general telephone number and a primary contact for advertising. Include cost estimates.

Scenario: Research a list of 20 publications or news articles for a research paper on teen pregnancy in the United States. Please be sure to include statistics and examples to for credibility. Then, organize and categorize the information as a reference list in APA format.



Testing Rationale

How do children learn? Based on the early research and philosophy of Jean Piaget, children learn through “play-based” activities, many educators subscribe to the notion that children as well as adults “learn by doing”. (2009) Years later, a number of authors and researchers investigated the impact of early childhood education relevant to the psychology of early childhood development. Many concluded that a child’s education is dependent upon good parenting and socioeconomic factors despite a strong foundation of memorization during the early stages of development. Today, we know that learning requires students to engage in problem-solving to actively build mental models. Knowledge is attained not just by receiving and memorizing information, but also by interpreting the information and relating it to the learner's knowledge base. What is important, and therefore should be assessed, is the learner's ability to organize, structure, and use information in context to solve complex problems. This is the practice of critical thinking. For the purposes of this lesson plan, an alternative testing method will be more effective than a standardized written test or portfolio test. As a result, this lesson plan involves testing which forces the student to interpret information and organize it for practicality and efficiency. More importantly, this type of alternative testing will allow the student to develop solutions based upon his/her own rationale. Therefore students may have different answers based upon personal experience, learning styles or cultural perspective. But despite the diverse answers, an instructor should be able to easily assess the student’s level of comprehension and level of skills.  


References
Kubiszyn, T. & Borich, G. (2013). Educational Testing & Measurement: Classroom Application
And Practice (10th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Winner, Melinda. (2009). “Long-Term Benefits of Early Childhood Education"; National
Education Association. NY.

Nicole Sartin, Ashford University, September 9, 2013.
Blog Link: http://axxess4me.blogspot.com/